Origins and Sacred Geography
茅山术 (Maoshan Shu), also known as the Maoshan School (茅山派) or Shangqing School (上清派), represents one of the oldest and most influential Daoist talismanic traditions in Chinese spiritual history. The tradition's name derives from Mount Mao (茅山), a sacred mountain located in Jurong County, Jiangsu Province, approximately 50 km southeast of Nanjing.
The Three Mao Brothers (三茅真君):
The tradition's legendary founders are the Three Mao Perfect Sovereign Brothers:
- Mao Ying (茅盈) - eldest brother
- Mao Gu (茅固) - middle brother
- Mao Zhong (茅衷) - youngest brother
According to hagiography, these three brothers from Xianyang lived during Emperor Jingdi's reign (157-141 BC) of the Western Han Dynasty. They practiced austerity, cured people's illnesses, and eventually attained the Way and became immortals. After their enlightenment, they came to Mount Juqu (句曲山, the mountain's original name) in Jurong, which subsequently became known as Mount Mao in their honor.
Historical Development:
- Han Dynasty (2nd-4th century CE) - Legendary origins of the Three Mao Brothers
- Eastern Jin (4th-5th century) - Yang Xi receives the Shangqing revelations, establishing systematic mystical traditions
- Tang Dynasty (7th-10th century) - Imperial patronage and codification of practices
- Yuan-Ming Dynasties onward - Evolution from meditation-focused to ritual and talismanic emphasis; spread to folk contexts
The Shangqing (Supreme Clarity) Tradition
The Shangqing School (上清派), meaning "Supreme Clarity" or "Highest Clarity," represents the mystical foundation of Maoshan practice. The Shangqing revelations occurred in the 4th century CE, producing one of the most elaborate and revered traditions in Chinese religious history.
Philosophical Integration:
Unlike purely meditative schools or exclusively ritual-focused traditions, Maoshan balances two complementary paths:
- 内丹 (Nei Dan) - Interior Alchemy: Cultivating the "inner landscape" through visualization of spirits, meditation, and breathwork to develop immortality within
- 外法 (Wai Fa) - Exterior Ritual: Talismanic magic, exorcisms, and ritual procedures for addressing worldly affairs
Core Cultivation Method - Cunsi (存思):
Shangqing's most distinctive practice is cunsi (存思), meaning "visualization" or "meditative contemplation." Through this practice, practitioners believe that gods of heaven and earth can enter the human body. When the spirits within the body merge with the qi (vital energy) of the celestial and earthly gods, one can achieve immortality and ascend to the Shangqing realm.
Talismanic System: Foundation of Fu Lu Pai
Maoshan is foundational to the 符箓派 (Fu Lu Pai) - the "Talismanic School" of Daoism. Practitioners who use talismanic objects are called 符籙派 (fúlù pài), an informal group made up of priests from different schools of Taoism who share this ritual technology.
Fu Lu (符箓) - Taoist Talismans:
These are specialized calligraphic symbols and incantations written or painted on talismans by Daoist practitioners. Maoshan talismans employ complex writing that blends seal script with celestial characters, empowered through meditation and deity visualization.
Core Categories:
- Protective Talismans (护身符) - Warding off demons and evil influences, ensuring safety during travel
- Healing Talismans (治病符) - Medical incantations (祝由科), talismanic water (符水) consumed to cure illness
- Thunder Talismans (雷符) - The famous Five Thunder Rites (五雷法 Wu Lei Fa), commanding thunder generals and celestial forces
- Spirit Control (收妖符) - Binding demons and ghosts, commanding celestial soldiers (天兵天将)
Thunder Magic (五雷法):
Maoshan's Thunder Magic represents one of its most powerful and distinctive practices. The Five Thunder Rites invoke thunder generals from the celestial bureaucracy to combat negative forces, perform exorcisms, and manifest divine power. This practice became foundational for later folk traditions, including Liuren's own Thunder Teachings (五雷教 Wuleijiao).
Core Ritual Practices
Exorcism and Demon Subjugation (驱邪斩妖):
Maoshan practitioners command spirit generals to subdue demons, engaging in ritual combat with malevolent forces. They establish protective boundaries (结界) around homes, villages, and individuals to prevent intrusion by negative entities.
Healing and Medical Incantations (治病救人):
The tradition integrates spiritual diagnosis with ritual treatment. Practitioners identify spirit-caused illnesses and prescribe talismanic remedies, often working in conjunction with traditional Chinese medicine principles. Talismanic ashes dissolved in water (符水) are consumed as medicine.
Altar Construction and Deity Invocation (设坛请神):
Elaborate altar setups invoke specific deities for specific purposes. Practitioners make offerings and petitions to the celestial bureaucracy, calling upon the hierarchies of gods and spirit generals to manifest assistance.
The "Jiangshi" Myth - Folklore vs. Reality:
In popular culture, Maoshan priests are famously associated with controlling jiangshi (僵尸) - "hopping corpses" or "Chinese vampires." These are depicted as stiff, reanimated corpses dressed in Qing Dynasty official garments, controlled by Taoist talismans affixed to their foreheads.
Historical Reality: The jiangshi legend likely arose from the practice of "corpse walkers" - specialists who transported bodies of deceased migrants back to their ancestral homes for proper burial. Daoist priests would perform rituals to pacify the spirits of the deceased during transport. Over time, folklore exaggerated these rituals into tales of magical zombie control, blending with beliefs about improper burial and restless spirits.
While entertaining in films and popular media, actual Maoshan practice focuses on respectful ancestral rites and spirit pacification, not supernatural zombie command.
Transmission and Influence
Monastic vs. Folk Lineages:
Maoshan transmission evolved along two parallel tracks:
Monastic Lineages (道院传承):
- Formal ordination in Daoist temples
- Extensive study of scriptures, meditation, and ritual procedures
- Hierarchical priesthood with clear master-disciple relationships
- Emphasis on both interior cultivation and ritual mastery
Folk Lineages (民间传承):
- Lay practitioners inheriting talismanic knowledge outside monastic structures
- Simplified rituals adapted for non-monastic life and local needs
- Regional variations emerging in different provinces (Guangdong, Hunan, Fujian, etc.)
- Integration with local shamanic practices and indigenous beliefs
Relationship with Sister Traditions - "Common Roots, Divergent Paths":
While Maoshan represents one of the oldest Daoist talismanic traditions, its relationship to folk magic lineages like Jin Ying, Meishan, Lüshan, and Liuren is best understood as "common roots from which diverse branches grew" (同血连根). Each tradition adapted Maoshan's foundational technologies to specific regional, cultural, and social contexts:
- Jin Ying Jiao - Explicitly incorporates "茅山派 (Maoshan School)" as one of three synth
etic components, blending Maoshan talismanic methods with Luofu Mountain traditions
- Meishan Jiao - Evolved from "Maoshan Magic combined with Hunan's local folk shamanic practices" (梅山法是由茅山法加上湖南当地的民间巫教而成)
- Lüshan Jiao - Shares talismanic foundations while developing distinct aggressive exorcistic methods and fierce shamanic elements
- Liuren Fajiao - Traces lineage to "Maoshan Huang Shigong" (茅山黄师公), representing direct transmission adapted for vagabond class mobility
These traditions are best understood as members of the same family, with Maoshan as an honored elder sibling whose teachings inspired regional innovations rather than rigid replication.
Contemporary Practice
Maoshan Temple (茅山道院) - Living Center:
Mount Mao remains a vital pilgrimage site and active religious center in modern Jiangsu Province. The Maoshan Daoist Temple continues to host ceremonies, train practitioners, and preserve traditional knowledge. The mountain is acclaimed by the Taoism community as "The Eighth Grotto Heaven and The Most Auspicious Land."
Living Lineages and Modern Practice:
- Mainland China - Post-Cultural Revolution revival has seen restoration of temples and renewed interest in Daoist cultivation
- Taiwan - Formal Maoshan temples maintain ordination lineages and ritual traditions
- Hong Kong - Daoist associations preserve and transmit practices, though Quanzhen School is more prevalent
- Southeast Asia - Folk practitioners in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia continue localized variations
Modern Adaptations:
- Integration with Chinese medicine clinics offering both herbal and ritual treatments
- Academic study and cultural preservation efforts at universities
- Digital archives documenting talismanic forms and ritual procedures
- Popular culture influence through films, television, and literature featuring Maoshan magic
In the 21st century, Maoshan Daoism is still practiced, though its current techniques and beliefs have evolved from the original Shangqing meditative values to encompass broader ritual and talismanic applications.
起源与圣地
茅山术，也称茅山派或上清派，代表中国灵性历史中最古老、最具影响力的道教符箓传统之一。该传统的名称来源于茅山，位于江苏省句容县的圣山，距南京东南约50公里。
三茅真君：
该传统的传奇创始人是三茅真君：
据传记记载，这三位来自咸阳的兄弟生活在西汉景帝时期（公元前157-141年）。他们修行苦练，治愈百姓疾病，最终得道成仙。成仙后，他们来到句容的句曲山，该山因此被称为茅山以纪念他们。
历史发展：
- 汉代（公元前2-4世纪） - 三茅真君的传奇起源
- 东晋（4-5世纪） - 杨羲接受上清启示，建立系统化的神秘传统
- 唐代（7-10世纪） - 皇家资助和法门编纂
- 元明以后 - 从专注冥想转向仪式和符箓；传播至民间
上清道统
上清派，意为"至高清明"，代表茅山法门的神秘基础。上清启示发生在公元4世纪，产生了中国宗教史上最精密、最受尊崇的传统之一。
哲学融合：
与纯冥想学派或纯仪式传统不同，茅山平衡两条互补道路：
- 内丹：通过观神、冥想和气功在体内培育不朽
- 外法：符箓法术、驱邪和仪式程序以处理世俗事务
核心修行法门 - 存思：
上清最独特的法门是存思，意为"观想"或"冥想沉思"。通过此法门，修行者相信天地之神可进入人体。当体内之灵与天地神的气合一时，可得不朽并升至上清境界。
符箓体系：符箓派的基础
茅山是符箓派的基础。使用符箓物品的修行者称为符籙派，这是一个由不同道教学派的法师组成的非正式团体，共享这种仪式技术。
符箓 - 道教符咒：
这些是道教修行者书写或绘制在符咒上的专门书法符号和咒语。茅山符咒采用复杂的书写，融合篆书与天书，通过冥想和观神赋能。
核心类别：
- 护身符 - 驱除邪魔恶灵，保障旅途安全
- 治病符 - 医疗咒语（祝由科），符水饮用治病
- 雷符 - 著名的五雷法，指挥雷部天将
- 收妖符 - 捆缚魔鬼，指挥天兵天将
五雷法：
茅山的雷法代表其最强大、最独特的法门之一。五雷法召唤天界雷部将领对抗负面力量，驱邪，显化神威。此法门成为后来民间传统的基础，包括六壬的五雷教。
核心法门
驱邪斩妖：
茅山法师指挥灵将降妖，与恶势力进行仪式战斗。在住宅、村庄和个人周围建立防护结界，防止负面实体入侵。
治病救人：
传统融合灵性诊断与仪式治疗。法师识别灵体致病，开具符咒处方，常与传统中医原理结合。符灰溶于水（符水）作为药物饮用。
设坛请神：
精密的神坛设置召唤特定神灵执行特定目的。法师向天界神系献供和祈愿，召唤神灵和灵将显化助力。
"僵尸"神话 - 民间传说与现实：
在流行文化中，茅山法师以控制僵尸闻名——"跳尸"或"中国吸血鬼"。它们被描绘为僵硬的复活尸体，穿着清代官服，由贴在额头的道教符咒控制。
历史现实： 僵尸传说可能源于"赶尸人"的法门——专门将去世移民的尸体运回祖籍地进行正式葬礼的专家。道士在运输过程中进行仪式安抚死者灵魂。随着时间推移，民间传说将这些仪式夸大为魔法僵尸控制的故事，融合了对不当埋葬和不安灵魂的信仰。
虽然在电影和流行媒体中很有趣，实际的茅山法门专注于尊重的祖先仪式和灵魂安抚，而非超自然的僵尸指挥。
传承与影响
道院传承 vs 民间传承：
茅山传承沿两条平行轨迹演化：
道院传承：
- 在道观正式授箓
- 广泛学习经文、冥想和仪式程序
- 明确师徒关系的等级制度
- 强调内修与仪式精通
民间传承：
- 在道院结构外继承符箓知识的俗家修行者
- 适应非出家生活和地方需求的简化仪式
- 在不同省份（广东、湖南、福建等）出现地方变体
- 与地方巫术和本土信仰融合
与姐妹传统的关系 - "同血连根，殊途同归"：
虽然茅山代表最古老的道教符箓传统之一，其与金英、梅山、闾山、六壬等民间法脉的关系最好理解为"同血连根，各有分枝"。每个传统将茅山的基础技术适应于特定的地域、文化和社会背景：
- 金英教 - 明确融合"茅山派"作为三个综合成分之一，结合茅山符箓法门与罗浮山传统
- 梅山教 - "梅山法是由茅山法加上湖南当地的民间巫教而成"
- 闾山教 - 共享符箓基础，同时发展独特的攻击性驱邪法门和凶猛的巫术元素
- 六壬法教 - 法脉追溯至"茅山黄师公"，代表直接传承适应流民阶层的流动性
这些传统最好理解为同一家族的成员，茅山作为受尊敬的长辈兄弟，其教法激发了地方创新而非僵化复制。
当代修习
茅山道院 - 活跃中心：
茅山仍是现代江苏省重要的朝圣地和活跃宗教中心。茅山道院继续举行仪式、培训修行者和保存传统知识。道教界将该山誉为"第八洞天、最吉祥福地"。
活跃法脉与现代修习：
- 中国大陆 - 文革后复兴见证了道观修复和对道教修炼的重新关注
- 台湾 - 正式茅山道观维持授箓法脉和仪式传统
- 香港 - 道教协会保存和传承法门，虽然全真派更为盛行
- 东南亚 - 马来西亚、新加坡和印尼的民间修行者延续本土化变体
现代适应：
- 与中医诊所融合，提供草药和仪式治疗
- 大学的学术研究和文化保护工作
- 记录符箓形式和仪式程序的数字档案
- 通过电影、电视和文学中的茅山法术产生流行文化影响
在21世纪，茅山道教仍在修习中，尽管其当代技术和信仰已从原始的上清冥想价值观演化，包含更广泛的仪式和符箓应用。